| Outcome Measures: |
Primary: Endogenous Glucose Production (EGP), EGP (a measure of the body's production of sugar) was measured by using a 6-hour stepped pancreatic clamp procedure under various treatment conditions (e.g., Pioglitazone or placebo at 10-days and/or 21-days), by monitoring the level of a non-radioactive, naturally occurring form of glucose (sugar). The relevant data at the end of each last 60 minute bin of each run was reported for each of the four groups up to 6 hours. Results are summarized by study arm/group and reported in milligrams/kilograms/minute (mg/kg/min)., Up to 6 hours|Glucose Rates of Disappearance (Rd), Glucose rates of disappearance were measured using a stepped pancreatic clamp study procedure under various treatment conditions (e.g., Pioglitazone or placebo at 10-days and/or 21-days) by monitoring the level of a non-radioactive, naturally occurring form of glucose (sugar). For purposes of this study, the most relevant data for the final hour is summarized within each study Pioglitazone and Placebo study arm/group, respectively. Results are summarized by study arm/group and reported in milligrams/kilograms/minute (mg/kg/min)., Up to 6 hours | Secondary: Gene Expression in Both Whole Fat Tissue and Isolated Macrophages, Gene expression of inflammatory markers in both whole fat tissue and isolated macrophages were studied by quantitative, real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) in placebo and Pioglitazone groups of either 10- or 21-day study. The reporting data was calculated as the ratio between the target genes and housekeeping genes in either the 10- or 21-day study., Outcome was compared prior to and post 10-day or 21-day administration of either placebo or Pioglitazone|Effects of Pioglitazone on Adipose Tissue Percentage of Macrophage Content, Adipose tissue biopsy was performed on day one or on the last day (10th or 21st day) for the corresponding Pioglitazone and placebo interventions. Macrophages were stained with immunofluorescence antibody after isolation from adipose tissue and processed. The percentage of macrophage content in stromal vascular fraction cells (SVF) analyzed by Fluorescence-activated cell sorter analysis (FACS) was determined. Results are summarized by study arm/group and reported in milligrams/kilograms/minute (mg/kg/min)., Assessed at day 1 prior to the intervention and on day 10 or 21 following the intervention, day 10 or 21 following the intervention reported|Adipose Tissue Percentage of Macrophage Content, Adipose tissue percentage of macrophage content was analyzed by Immuno-fluorescence staining (iNOS+ and CD68+). Both the immuno-fluorescence stained macrophages and all other stained cells will be counted after staining. The percentage of macrophage content will be calculated as the the ratio between the number of macrophage and all other cells., Outcome was compared between Pioglitazone and placebo group prior to and after 21-day administration|Adipose Tissue Regulatory T Lymphocyte Content, Adipose tissue T lymphocyte content (%) was analyzed by Immunohistochemistry (IHC) staining with Treg-specific marker FOXP3 Both the IHC FOXP3 stained T lymphocyte and all other stained cells will be counted after staining. The percentage of T lymphocyte content will be calculated as the the ratio between the number of T lymphocyte and all other cells., Outcome was compared between Pioglitazone and placebo group prior to and after 21-day administration
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